READING COMPONENTS
Reading is the most basic of skills. It provides access to other skills and knowledge, facilitates life-long learning, and opens doors to opportunity. While a large number of adult learners need to improve their reading skills, many instructors in adult education programs do not teach reading explicitly.
What is reading? [Reading is]…a complex system of deriving meaning from print that requires all of the following:
· The skills and knowledge to understand how phonemes, or speech sounds, are connected to print;
· The ability to decode unfamiliar words;
· The ability to read fluently;
· Sufficient background information and vocabulary to foster reading comprehension;
· The development of appropriate active strategies to construct meaning from print; and
· The development and maintenance of a motivation to read.
(Source: Partnership for Reading)
Scientific research has identified five components of reading:
1. Alphabetics (Phonemic Awareness) is the ability to notice, think about, and work with the individual sounds in spoken words.
2. Phonics is the relationships between the letters (graphemes) of written language and the individual sounds (phonemes) of spoken language. Phonics instruction teaches learners to use these relationships to use and write words.
3. Fluency is the ability to read a text accurately and quickly. When fluent readers read silently, they recognize words automatically. They group words quickly to help them gain meaning from what they read. They read aloud effortlessly and with expression. Fluency is important because it provides a bridge between word recognition and comprehension.
4. Vocabulary refers to the words we must know to communicate effectively. Vocabulary is also very important to reading comprehension. Readers cannot understand what they are reading without knowing what most of the words mean. Learning to read more advanced texts means readers must learn the meaning of new words that are not part of their oral vocabulary.
5. Comprehension is the reason for reading. If readers can read the words but do not understand what they are reading, they are not really reading. Good readers are both purposeful (they have a reason to read) and active (they think to make sense of what they read).
Research Definitions Exploring the vocabulary of reading research and practice can deepen families’ and educators’ understanding of how reading is taught and learned.
· Reading is a complex system of deriving meaning from print that requires all of the following:
o the skills and knowledge to understand how phonemes, or speech sounds, are connected to print;
o the ability to decode unfamiliar words;
o the ability to read fluently;
o sufficient background information and vocabulary to foster reading comprehension;
o the development of appropriate active strategies to construct meaning from print;
o the development and maintenance of a motivation to read.
· The five components of reading include:
o Phonemic awareness is the ability to notice, think about, and work with the individual sounds in spoken words.
o Phonics is the relationships between the letters (graphemes) of written language and the individual sounds (phonemes) of spoken language. Phonics instruction teaches learners to use these relationships to use and write words.
o Fluency is the ability to read a text accurately and quickly. When fluent readers read silently, they recognize words automatically. They group words quickly to help them gain meaning from what they read. They read aloud effortlessly and with expression. Fluency is important because it provides a bridge between word recognition and comprehension.
o Vocabulary refers to the words we must know to communicate effectively. Vocabulary is also very important to reading comprehension. Readers cannot understand what they are reading without knowing what most of the words mean. Learning to read more advanced texts means readers must learn the meaning of new words that are not part of their oral vocabulary.
o Comprehension is the reason for reading. If readers can read the words but do not understand what they are reading, they are not really reading. Good readers are both purposeful (they have a reason to read) and active (they think to make sense of what they read).
Early in the 17th century, two astronomers competed to describe the nature of our solar system.
Galileo built a telescope and found new planets and moons.
Francesco Sizi ridiculed Galileo’s findings. There must be only seven planets, Sizi said. After all, there are seven windows in the head—two nostrils, two ears, two eyes, and a mouth. There are seven known metals. There are seven days in a week, and they are already named after the seven known planets. If we increase the number of planets, he said, the whole system falls apart. Finally, Sizi claimed, these socalled satellites being discovered by Galileo were invisible to the eye.
He concluded they must have no influence on the Earth and, therefore, do not exist.
Sizi’s most valuable contribution to history may have been to remind us that true understandings of the world, and how it works, cannot be based on pure thought alone, no matter how logical, creative, or contemporary such thought may seem.
True understandings require some measure of science and the willingness to seek information when making decisions.
BECOMING A WISE CONSUMER OF EDUCATION RESEARCH
More than ever, educators are expected to make decisions that guarantee quality instruction. As knowledge emerges, so do philosophies, opinions, and rhetoric about definitions of instructional excellence. From policy makers to classroom teachers, educators need ways to separate misinformation from genuine knowledge and to distinguish scientific research from poorly supported claims.
Effective teachers use scientific thinking in their classrooms all the time. They assess and evaluate student performance, develop Individual Education Plans, reflect on their practice, and engage in action research. Teachers use experimental logic when they plan for instruction: they evaluate their students’ previous knowledge, construct hypotheses about the best methods for teaching, develop teaching plans based on those hypotheses, observe the results, and base further instruction on the evidence collected.
In short, teachers use the concepts of rigorous research and evaluation in profoundly practical ways.
Teachers can further strengthen their instruction and protect their students’ valuable time in school by scientifically evaluating claims about teaching methods and recognizing quality research when they see it. This booklet, distilled from the monograph Using
Research and Reason in Education: How Teachers Can Use Scientifically Based Research to Make Curricular and Instructional Decisions, provides a brief introduction to understanding and using scientifically based research.
1
The federal perspective on scientifically based research
The No Child Left Behind (NCLB) Act of 2001 encourages and, in some cases such as Reading First, requires the use of instruction based on scientific research. The emphasis on scientifically based research supports the consistent use of instructional methods that have been proven effective. To meet the NCLB definition of “scientifically based,” research must:
• employ systematic, empirical methods that draw on observation or experiment;
• involve rigorous data analyses that are adequate to test the stated hypotheses and justify the general conclusions;
• rely on measurements or observational methods that provide valid data across evaluators and observers, and across multiple measurements and observations; and
• be accepted by a peer-reviewed journal or approved by a panel of independent experts through a comparatively rigorous, objective, and scientific review
RECOGNIZING EFFECTIVE RESEARCH
Teachers can use a simple set of questions to distinguish between research that confirms the effectiveness of an instructional practice and research that does not:
• Has the study been published in a peer-reviewed journal or approved by a panel of independent experts?
• Have the results of the study been replicated by other scientists?
• Is there consensus in the research community that the study’s findings are supported by a critical mass of additional studies?
Independent peer review
Peer review subjects a paper to scrutiny by scientists in the relevant field of
specialization. This happens in two ways. In one method, a paper submitted for
publication in a peer-reviewed journal is examined by other scientists in the field before
an editor (usually an expert in the field) passes judgment on it. The second method is
review by an independent panel of experts who, using rigorous criteria, determine
whether the findings of the paper are credible.
Peer review provides a baseline of quality control because it exposes ideas and
experimentation to examination and criticism by other researchers. Its absence should
raise doubt about the quality of the research. Presentations at education conferences that
make claims about specific educational practices should also be held to this standard.
It is relatively easy for teachers to determine if a paper has been published in a peerreviewed
journal; it can be more difficult to determine whether a panel review (without
publication) has occurred unless it is specified in the paper.
2
Not all education journals are peer-reviewed
Education journals have different purposes that contribute to our understanding
of teaching. The American Educational Research Journal, the Journal of
Educational Psychology, and Reading Research Quarterly are examples of journals
that conduct peer reviews and contain empirical evidence about teaching
techniques. Phi Delta Kappan and Educational Leadership, by contrast, contain
original thought, but neither publishes peer-reviewed original research.
Peer-reviewed journals on other topics such as cognitive psychology and
other social sciences can also make useful contributions to educational practice.
Replication of results by other scientists
Teachers should look for evidence that an instructional technique has been proven
effective by more than one study. Knowledge generated by one study without scrutiny
and criticism by others cannot be fully scientific. To be considered scientifically based, a
research finding must be presented in a way that enables other researchers to reach the
same results when they repeat the experiment.
True scientific knowledge is public and open to challenge. It is held tentatively,
subject to change based on contrary evidence.
Consensus within a research community
A single experiment rarely decides an issue, supporting one theory and ruling out all
others. Issues are most often decided when the community of scientists in a field comes
to agreement over time that sufficient evidence has converged to support one theory over
another. Scientists do not evaluate data from a single, perfectly designed experiment.
They evaluate data from many experiments, each containing some flaws but providing part of the answer.
SCIENTIFIC INVESTIGATION PROCEEDS BY STAGES
Becoming more aware of how the scientific process manifests itself every day in both
research and teaching can enhance a teacher’s effectiveness, depth of expertise, and
ability to justify the choice of instructional methods to parents, peers, and administrators.
As in formal evaluations of educational programs, the tenets and themes of scientific
research have relevance and application in the classroom. But because there are different
stages of scientific investigation, teachers should take care to use data generated at
each stage in appropriate ways.
For example, some teachers rely on their own observations to make judgments about
the success of educational strategies. A collection of observations leads to some
understanding of the world, but observations have limited value. Scientific observations
must be structured in order to support or reject theories about the causes that underlie
events. Scientists—and teachers—make predictions about causes based on their
structured observations and then use other techniques to test specific outcomes.
In the early stages of investigation, case studies—highly detailed descriptions of
individuals or small groups and the context surrounding them—can be useful. Case
studies provide descriptive information about how an educational program operates in a
classroom, for example, descriptions of instructional strategies, amount of time, and
types of materials used in a new vocabulary program. This qualitative design uses a
variety of data collection methods from multiple sources to study a single entity in depth,
over a period of time, and in its context. Case studies lack the comparative information
needed to determine cause-effect relationships, but they can point researchers to
variables that deserve further study and help generate hypotheses. They can be helpful in
developing theories about what is or is not working instructionally. However, case studies
cannot provide the measurable results that are necessary to understand and confirm
outcomes.
Correlational studies take things a step further by testing whether there are links
between variables and outcomes. They are useful in early and middle stages of an
investigation once hypotheses have been developed. For example, if a researcher
hypothesizes that vocabulary instruction leads to improved reading comprehension, he or
she could conduct a correlational study, using statistical techniques, to determine if there
is a link between vocabulary instruction and reading comprehension. If the study finds a
link, the researcher could design a randomized controlled trial, or true experiment, to
confirm whether the vocabulary instruction causes the improvement in comprehension.
In order to draw conclusions about outcomes and their causes, data must come from
true experiments. True experiments, or randomized field or controlled trials, test specific
predictions and rule out alternative explanations. In an experiment, an investigator
assigns subjects randomly to experimental and control groups, varies the apparent cause
(the independent variable) and looks at the apparent effect (the dependent variable) while
holding all other variables constant. Only true experiments can provide evidence of
whether an instructional practice works or not.
The experimental method controls for the many other variables that could have an
impact on an outcome. Unlike case studies and correlational methods, experiments use
techniques such as random assignment of subjects to treatment and control conditions
and the matching of subjects in the treatment groups on background and ability variables.
For example, imagine an experimental study that investigates whether vocabulary
instruction has a positive effect on reading comprehension. A sample of third-grade
students is selected and half of the students are then randomly assigned to the treatment
group and half are assigned to the control/comparison group. Random assignment
ensures (if the sample size is sufficient) that the two groups will be relatively matched
on various demographic characteristics and on overall ability level. This is why random
assignment is so important—it ensures the equivalence and comparability of the
students in the treatment and control groups. Students in the treatment group then
receive instruction in learning 100 new vocabulary words, while students in the control
group do not receive instruction in learning the new vocabulary words (they engage in
an alternative activity). At the end of the instructional period, students are given a
standardized comprehension test.
Results of the study will demonstrate whether students in the treatment condition
do better than comparable students in the control group on the test of reading
comprehension. If the treatment group shows reading comprehension scores that are
higher than those of the control group to a statistically significant degree, then the
experiment provides evidence that helps to establish a causal relationship between
vocabulary instruction and reading comprehension. As mentioned earlier, multiple studies
that replicate these methods and find similar results would need to be conducted for
further confidence in the results.
While teachers certainly would not be expected to carry out true experimental
research in the classroom, understanding the role of experimental research as well as the
other stages of scientific investigation and the data they generate—from observations
to standardized assessments—can prepare teachers to interpret research better, decide
what and how to teach, and make legitimate, defendable statements about the impact of
their instructional choices.
USING THE RESEARCH LITERATURE AS A GUIDE
In many cases, science has not yet provided the answers teachers and others need
to make fully informed decisions about adopting, or dropping, particular educational
strategies. What if an area of education lacks a research base, has not been evaluated
according to the principles of scientific evaluation described above, and no consensus
exists? In those cases, teachers have to rely on scientific reasoning to find their way.
An important first step is to look at the findings and principles from the established
research base.
5
Imagine, for example, that two untested treatments for children with extreme
reading difficulties have emerged. The first treatment suggests a new strategy for
teaching phonemic awareness by using only songs and clapping to teach children how
language can be broken down into sound segments, or phonemes. The second treatment
trains children in vestibular sensitivity by having them walk on balance beams while
blindfolded. In this hypothetical case, neither of these new treatment ideas has been
tested.* Neither has produced empirical evidence to prove that it is effective.
The lack of such evidence need not automatically lead to the conclusion that the
methods do not work. Even without empirical evidence, one might find support for one or
both methods from other studies conducted on similar strategies. In this case, the
strategy featuring awareness of sound segments merits consideration first, because it
makes contact with a broad consensus in the research literature that children with severe
reading difficulties are hampered by an insufficiently developed awareness of language’s
segmented structure. The second does not have a comparable link to existing research. A
teacher thinking scientifically can make a reasonable conclusion that the first method is
preferable by knowing that there is a link to the broader research base.
6
Teachers supporting teachers
It can be difficult for a teacher to sort through claims of educational impact.
Teachers may want to form reading/discussion groups to talk about research
studies and to challenge each other in a collegial way about what works, or does
not work, in the classroom.
The Institute of Education Sciences’ What Works Clearinghouse
(www.whatworks.ed.gov) can be a resource for summaries of scientifically based studies. By talking and learning more about how to apply the findings of scientific research in their teaching, educators can practice and refine their skills—and follow the example of Galileo in bringing new knowledge to the world.
Teachers play a variety of roles in their work—instructor, coach, advocate, and learner—but they also act as scientists in several ways.
As they make the important decisions about what and how to teach, they must evaluate the claims associated with educational strategies and programs. And in the classroom, they must constantly assess and reassess the value of programs and their impact on students.
The basic principles of the scientific method
• Science progresses by investigating testable problems.
• A testable theory yields predictions that could possibly be proven
wrong.
• Scientific knowledge has passed some minimal tests.
• Data and theories are considered in the public domain, or included in
the research base, only after a peer review, either by a journal or a
panel.
• Published data and theories allow for replication and criticism by other scientists.
• Theories are tested by systematic observation bound by the logic of true experiments.
• Correlational studies, useful when experiments can not be carried out, only help rule out hypotheses.
• Researchers use many different methods to reach conclusions. Most often, they draw conclusions only after a slow accumulation of data from many studies.
adult Literacy Instruction: A Review of the Research
Adult Literacy Instruction: A Review of the Research is a follow-up to the original review of Adult Education (AE) reading instruction research published in 2002. This new report presents findings from an analysis of the AE reading instruction research base and is designed as a resource for practitioners and reading researchers.
read more
Learning to Achieve: A Professional’s Guide to Educating Adults with Learning Disabilities
This companion guide to the training is also a stand-alone resource for professionals who haven't taken the Learning to Achieve training. It covers relevant characteristics of adults with learning disabilities matched with descriptions and examples of practical intervention strategies.
read more
National Career Awareness Project
Teams from eight states were selected to participate in the first round of National Career Awareness Project, January–June, 2011. The National Career Awareness Project will increase and improve adult learners' career awareness and planning by helping adult education program staff incorporate career awareness and planning into their instruction and counseling activities.
read more
What is Literacy? How well adults can use printed and written information to function in society, to achieve their goals, and to develop their knowledge and potential is the definition of literacy crafted by a panel of experts for the National Adult Literacy Survey and adopted for use by ETS in state, national and international surveys.
As society becomes more technologically advanced, the quantity and types of written materials are growing. Adults are expected to use information from these materials in new and more complex ways and to maintain and enhance their literacy skills through lifelong learning activities.
Literacy skills are critical not only for the personal achievement of individuals, but also for the social and economic development of each nation. These skills are no longer linked to a single threshold that separates the literate from the nonliterate.
Types of Literacy Based on numerous research studies, ETS has developed principled frameworks that emphasize literacy as a set of practical tools to facilitate work on the job, at home, and around the community and that use real-world literacy tasks. The frameworks provide for the measurement of literacy along these proficiency scales, or types of literacy.
Prose Prose literacy measures how well you understand and use information found in newspapers, magazines, novels, brochures, manuals or flyers. Most adults use prose literacy to answer questions, to learn how to do something or for entertainment. For example, you are using prose literacy skills when you:
· learn about quitting smoking from a brochure at your health clinic
· read a story or poem with your child
· join in the readings at a wedding or other ceremonies or events
· give your child medication as directed on the package
· read a newspaper or magazine to keep up on local and national events
Document Document literacy measures how well you find and use information in forms, schedules, charts, graphs and other tables of information. Most adults use document literacy to find information they need or want or to give information to someone else. For example, you are using document literacy skills when you:
· fill out a job application form or complete a credit card application
· use a bus or train schedule to retrieve specific information
· find out today's weather using a weather map
· use the TV guide to find the time that your favorite TV show starts
· sign a form giving permission for your child to go on a school field trip
· compare items in the warehouse to those listed on the inventory sheet
· retrieve information from a graph or chart
Quantitative Quantitative literacy measures how well you can use numbers found in ads, forms, flyers, articles or other printed materials. Quantitative literacy is a little different from prose and document literacy because in addition to using a text to identify needed information, you also have to add, subtract, multiply, divide or do other math to get the information you need.
For example, you are using quantitative literacy skills when you:
· figure out how much commission you earned last month in your sales job
· add up how much you save when you use coupons to buy two items at a store
· calculate a 15% tip at a restaurant
· figure out the monthly cost of the milk program at your child's school
· keep score for your bowling team
· follow the instructions on a can of paint to calculate how many cans you need to paint a room
Health Skills Health literacy measures how well you can understand and use health-related information. Materials included in this measure are judged to be related to one of five activities associated with where and why people take health-related actions. These include actions that involve health promotion; health protection; disease prevention; health care and maintenance; and accessing needed services or navigating the health-care system.
For example, you are using health literacy skills when you:
· follow instructions on how to take a medication
· read a brochure to determine your medical benefits
· use information on food or product labels to calculate nutritional content
· see a notice and determine whether or not you should have a screening or inoculation
· fill out a benefit application or patient history form
· read an article about diet or nutrition
· read a letter summarizing medical test results
Across all disciplines, teachers have identified a need to strengthen students' ability to read for information...to develop strategic readers.
What are the guiding principles of strategic reading?
WebEx: Bringing Literacy Strategies into Content Instruction Sponsored by Center on Instruction
Published: 7/23/2010 2:23 PM
The Center on Instruction provided an interactive webinar on July 22, 2010, to introduce the newly released Bringing Literacy Strategies into Content Instruction. Dr. Debby Houston Miller, Deputy Director of COI-Reading and one of the authors, presented information from the document, and co-authors Dr. Marcia Kosanovich and Dr. Deborah Reed participated in the Q&A session. The archived WebEx file can be accessed here, and the PowerPoint presentation and the document itself is available for download below.
Multimedia OverviewPreschool Language and Literacy
Watch this short overview to learn about the importance of preschool education to a child's long-term success. The overview explains how to use two research-based practices to improve instruction in foundational pre-reading skills and suggests how the website can be used to support and train teachers in learning these practices to improve the quality of preschool instruction. (4:10 min)
Explore these recommended practices:
· Teach Phonological Awareness
Develop phonological awareness skills as a foundation for learning sound-symbol relationships.
· Use Interactive and Dialogic Reading
Engage preschool children in interactive reading and dialogic reading to improve language and literacy skills.
· Overview Media & Materials
· State and District Tools
· Related Links
Visual DiagramPreschool Language and Literacy
This visual diagram illustrates the "big picture" of the practices and can be used to engage preschool teachers in discussion about their instruction. Use the left side to discuss the continuum of phonological awareness skills, and the right side to explore ways to implement interactive and dialogic questioning techniques. The diagram can help elicit teachers' ideas about
Reading is the most basic of skills. It provides access to other skills and knowledge, facilitates life-long learning, and opens doors to opportunity. While a large number of adult learners need to improve their reading skills, many instructors in adult education programs do not teach reading explicitly.
What is reading? [Reading is]…a complex system of deriving meaning from print that requires all of the following:
· The skills and knowledge to understand how phonemes, or speech sounds, are connected to print;
· The ability to decode unfamiliar words;
· The ability to read fluently;
· Sufficient background information and vocabulary to foster reading comprehension;
· The development of appropriate active strategies to construct meaning from print; and
· The development and maintenance of a motivation to read.
(Source: Partnership for Reading)
Scientific research has identified five components of reading:
1. Alphabetics (Phonemic Awareness) is the ability to notice, think about, and work with the individual sounds in spoken words.
2. Phonics is the relationships between the letters (graphemes) of written language and the individual sounds (phonemes) of spoken language. Phonics instruction teaches learners to use these relationships to use and write words.
3. Fluency is the ability to read a text accurately and quickly. When fluent readers read silently, they recognize words automatically. They group words quickly to help them gain meaning from what they read. They read aloud effortlessly and with expression. Fluency is important because it provides a bridge between word recognition and comprehension.
4. Vocabulary refers to the words we must know to communicate effectively. Vocabulary is also very important to reading comprehension. Readers cannot understand what they are reading without knowing what most of the words mean. Learning to read more advanced texts means readers must learn the meaning of new words that are not part of their oral vocabulary.
5. Comprehension is the reason for reading. If readers can read the words but do not understand what they are reading, they are not really reading. Good readers are both purposeful (they have a reason to read) and active (they think to make sense of what they read).
Research Definitions Exploring the vocabulary of reading research and practice can deepen families’ and educators’ understanding of how reading is taught and learned.
· Reading is a complex system of deriving meaning from print that requires all of the following:
o the skills and knowledge to understand how phonemes, or speech sounds, are connected to print;
o the ability to decode unfamiliar words;
o the ability to read fluently;
o sufficient background information and vocabulary to foster reading comprehension;
o the development of appropriate active strategies to construct meaning from print;
o the development and maintenance of a motivation to read.
· The five components of reading include:
o Phonemic awareness is the ability to notice, think about, and work with the individual sounds in spoken words.
o Phonics is the relationships between the letters (graphemes) of written language and the individual sounds (phonemes) of spoken language. Phonics instruction teaches learners to use these relationships to use and write words.
o Fluency is the ability to read a text accurately and quickly. When fluent readers read silently, they recognize words automatically. They group words quickly to help them gain meaning from what they read. They read aloud effortlessly and with expression. Fluency is important because it provides a bridge between word recognition and comprehension.
o Vocabulary refers to the words we must know to communicate effectively. Vocabulary is also very important to reading comprehension. Readers cannot understand what they are reading without knowing what most of the words mean. Learning to read more advanced texts means readers must learn the meaning of new words that are not part of their oral vocabulary.
o Comprehension is the reason for reading. If readers can read the words but do not understand what they are reading, they are not really reading. Good readers are both purposeful (they have a reason to read) and active (they think to make sense of what they read).
Early in the 17th century, two astronomers competed to describe the nature of our solar system.
Galileo built a telescope and found new planets and moons.
Francesco Sizi ridiculed Galileo’s findings. There must be only seven planets, Sizi said. After all, there are seven windows in the head—two nostrils, two ears, two eyes, and a mouth. There are seven known metals. There are seven days in a week, and they are already named after the seven known planets. If we increase the number of planets, he said, the whole system falls apart. Finally, Sizi claimed, these socalled satellites being discovered by Galileo were invisible to the eye.
He concluded they must have no influence on the Earth and, therefore, do not exist.
Sizi’s most valuable contribution to history may have been to remind us that true understandings of the world, and how it works, cannot be based on pure thought alone, no matter how logical, creative, or contemporary such thought may seem.
True understandings require some measure of science and the willingness to seek information when making decisions.
BECOMING A WISE CONSUMER OF EDUCATION RESEARCH
More than ever, educators are expected to make decisions that guarantee quality instruction. As knowledge emerges, so do philosophies, opinions, and rhetoric about definitions of instructional excellence. From policy makers to classroom teachers, educators need ways to separate misinformation from genuine knowledge and to distinguish scientific research from poorly supported claims.
Effective teachers use scientific thinking in their classrooms all the time. They assess and evaluate student performance, develop Individual Education Plans, reflect on their practice, and engage in action research. Teachers use experimental logic when they plan for instruction: they evaluate their students’ previous knowledge, construct hypotheses about the best methods for teaching, develop teaching plans based on those hypotheses, observe the results, and base further instruction on the evidence collected.
In short, teachers use the concepts of rigorous research and evaluation in profoundly practical ways.
Teachers can further strengthen their instruction and protect their students’ valuable time in school by scientifically evaluating claims about teaching methods and recognizing quality research when they see it. This booklet, distilled from the monograph Using
Research and Reason in Education: How Teachers Can Use Scientifically Based Research to Make Curricular and Instructional Decisions, provides a brief introduction to understanding and using scientifically based research.
1
The federal perspective on scientifically based research
The No Child Left Behind (NCLB) Act of 2001 encourages and, in some cases such as Reading First, requires the use of instruction based on scientific research. The emphasis on scientifically based research supports the consistent use of instructional methods that have been proven effective. To meet the NCLB definition of “scientifically based,” research must:
• employ systematic, empirical methods that draw on observation or experiment;
• involve rigorous data analyses that are adequate to test the stated hypotheses and justify the general conclusions;
• rely on measurements or observational methods that provide valid data across evaluators and observers, and across multiple measurements and observations; and
• be accepted by a peer-reviewed journal or approved by a panel of independent experts through a comparatively rigorous, objective, and scientific review
RECOGNIZING EFFECTIVE RESEARCH
Teachers can use a simple set of questions to distinguish between research that confirms the effectiveness of an instructional practice and research that does not:
• Has the study been published in a peer-reviewed journal or approved by a panel of independent experts?
• Have the results of the study been replicated by other scientists?
• Is there consensus in the research community that the study’s findings are supported by a critical mass of additional studies?
Independent peer review
Peer review subjects a paper to scrutiny by scientists in the relevant field of
specialization. This happens in two ways. In one method, a paper submitted for
publication in a peer-reviewed journal is examined by other scientists in the field before
an editor (usually an expert in the field) passes judgment on it. The second method is
review by an independent panel of experts who, using rigorous criteria, determine
whether the findings of the paper are credible.
Peer review provides a baseline of quality control because it exposes ideas and
experimentation to examination and criticism by other researchers. Its absence should
raise doubt about the quality of the research. Presentations at education conferences that
make claims about specific educational practices should also be held to this standard.
It is relatively easy for teachers to determine if a paper has been published in a peerreviewed
journal; it can be more difficult to determine whether a panel review (without
publication) has occurred unless it is specified in the paper.
2
Not all education journals are peer-reviewed
Education journals have different purposes that contribute to our understanding
of teaching. The American Educational Research Journal, the Journal of
Educational Psychology, and Reading Research Quarterly are examples of journals
that conduct peer reviews and contain empirical evidence about teaching
techniques. Phi Delta Kappan and Educational Leadership, by contrast, contain
original thought, but neither publishes peer-reviewed original research.
Peer-reviewed journals on other topics such as cognitive psychology and
other social sciences can also make useful contributions to educational practice.
Replication of results by other scientists
Teachers should look for evidence that an instructional technique has been proven
effective by more than one study. Knowledge generated by one study without scrutiny
and criticism by others cannot be fully scientific. To be considered scientifically based, a
research finding must be presented in a way that enables other researchers to reach the
same results when they repeat the experiment.
True scientific knowledge is public and open to challenge. It is held tentatively,
subject to change based on contrary evidence.
Consensus within a research community
A single experiment rarely decides an issue, supporting one theory and ruling out all
others. Issues are most often decided when the community of scientists in a field comes
to agreement over time that sufficient evidence has converged to support one theory over
another. Scientists do not evaluate data from a single, perfectly designed experiment.
They evaluate data from many experiments, each containing some flaws but providing part of the answer.
SCIENTIFIC INVESTIGATION PROCEEDS BY STAGES
Becoming more aware of how the scientific process manifests itself every day in both
research and teaching can enhance a teacher’s effectiveness, depth of expertise, and
ability to justify the choice of instructional methods to parents, peers, and administrators.
As in formal evaluations of educational programs, the tenets and themes of scientific
research have relevance and application in the classroom. But because there are different
stages of scientific investigation, teachers should take care to use data generated at
each stage in appropriate ways.
For example, some teachers rely on their own observations to make judgments about
the success of educational strategies. A collection of observations leads to some
understanding of the world, but observations have limited value. Scientific observations
must be structured in order to support or reject theories about the causes that underlie
events. Scientists—and teachers—make predictions about causes based on their
structured observations and then use other techniques to test specific outcomes.
In the early stages of investigation, case studies—highly detailed descriptions of
individuals or small groups and the context surrounding them—can be useful. Case
studies provide descriptive information about how an educational program operates in a
classroom, for example, descriptions of instructional strategies, amount of time, and
types of materials used in a new vocabulary program. This qualitative design uses a
variety of data collection methods from multiple sources to study a single entity in depth,
over a period of time, and in its context. Case studies lack the comparative information
needed to determine cause-effect relationships, but they can point researchers to
variables that deserve further study and help generate hypotheses. They can be helpful in
developing theories about what is or is not working instructionally. However, case studies
cannot provide the measurable results that are necessary to understand and confirm
outcomes.
Correlational studies take things a step further by testing whether there are links
between variables and outcomes. They are useful in early and middle stages of an
investigation once hypotheses have been developed. For example, if a researcher
hypothesizes that vocabulary instruction leads to improved reading comprehension, he or
she could conduct a correlational study, using statistical techniques, to determine if there
is a link between vocabulary instruction and reading comprehension. If the study finds a
link, the researcher could design a randomized controlled trial, or true experiment, to
confirm whether the vocabulary instruction causes the improvement in comprehension.
In order to draw conclusions about outcomes and their causes, data must come from
true experiments. True experiments, or randomized field or controlled trials, test specific
predictions and rule out alternative explanations. In an experiment, an investigator
assigns subjects randomly to experimental and control groups, varies the apparent cause
(the independent variable) and looks at the apparent effect (the dependent variable) while
holding all other variables constant. Only true experiments can provide evidence of
whether an instructional practice works or not.
The experimental method controls for the many other variables that could have an
impact on an outcome. Unlike case studies and correlational methods, experiments use
techniques such as random assignment of subjects to treatment and control conditions
and the matching of subjects in the treatment groups on background and ability variables.
For example, imagine an experimental study that investigates whether vocabulary
instruction has a positive effect on reading comprehension. A sample of third-grade
students is selected and half of the students are then randomly assigned to the treatment
group and half are assigned to the control/comparison group. Random assignment
ensures (if the sample size is sufficient) that the two groups will be relatively matched
on various demographic characteristics and on overall ability level. This is why random
assignment is so important—it ensures the equivalence and comparability of the
students in the treatment and control groups. Students in the treatment group then
receive instruction in learning 100 new vocabulary words, while students in the control
group do not receive instruction in learning the new vocabulary words (they engage in
an alternative activity). At the end of the instructional period, students are given a
standardized comprehension test.
Results of the study will demonstrate whether students in the treatment condition
do better than comparable students in the control group on the test of reading
comprehension. If the treatment group shows reading comprehension scores that are
higher than those of the control group to a statistically significant degree, then the
experiment provides evidence that helps to establish a causal relationship between
vocabulary instruction and reading comprehension. As mentioned earlier, multiple studies
that replicate these methods and find similar results would need to be conducted for
further confidence in the results.
While teachers certainly would not be expected to carry out true experimental
research in the classroom, understanding the role of experimental research as well as the
other stages of scientific investigation and the data they generate—from observations
to standardized assessments—can prepare teachers to interpret research better, decide
what and how to teach, and make legitimate, defendable statements about the impact of
their instructional choices.
USING THE RESEARCH LITERATURE AS A GUIDE
In many cases, science has not yet provided the answers teachers and others need
to make fully informed decisions about adopting, or dropping, particular educational
strategies. What if an area of education lacks a research base, has not been evaluated
according to the principles of scientific evaluation described above, and no consensus
exists? In those cases, teachers have to rely on scientific reasoning to find their way.
An important first step is to look at the findings and principles from the established
research base.
5
Imagine, for example, that two untested treatments for children with extreme
reading difficulties have emerged. The first treatment suggests a new strategy for
teaching phonemic awareness by using only songs and clapping to teach children how
language can be broken down into sound segments, or phonemes. The second treatment
trains children in vestibular sensitivity by having them walk on balance beams while
blindfolded. In this hypothetical case, neither of these new treatment ideas has been
tested.* Neither has produced empirical evidence to prove that it is effective.
The lack of such evidence need not automatically lead to the conclusion that the
methods do not work. Even without empirical evidence, one might find support for one or
both methods from other studies conducted on similar strategies. In this case, the
strategy featuring awareness of sound segments merits consideration first, because it
makes contact with a broad consensus in the research literature that children with severe
reading difficulties are hampered by an insufficiently developed awareness of language’s
segmented structure. The second does not have a comparable link to existing research. A
teacher thinking scientifically can make a reasonable conclusion that the first method is
preferable by knowing that there is a link to the broader research base.
6
Teachers supporting teachers
It can be difficult for a teacher to sort through claims of educational impact.
Teachers may want to form reading/discussion groups to talk about research
studies and to challenge each other in a collegial way about what works, or does
not work, in the classroom.
The Institute of Education Sciences’ What Works Clearinghouse
(www.whatworks.ed.gov) can be a resource for summaries of scientifically based studies. By talking and learning more about how to apply the findings of scientific research in their teaching, educators can practice and refine their skills—and follow the example of Galileo in bringing new knowledge to the world.
Teachers play a variety of roles in their work—instructor, coach, advocate, and learner—but they also act as scientists in several ways.
As they make the important decisions about what and how to teach, they must evaluate the claims associated with educational strategies and programs. And in the classroom, they must constantly assess and reassess the value of programs and their impact on students.
The basic principles of the scientific method
• Science progresses by investigating testable problems.
• A testable theory yields predictions that could possibly be proven
wrong.
• Scientific knowledge has passed some minimal tests.
• Data and theories are considered in the public domain, or included in
the research base, only after a peer review, either by a journal or a
panel.
• Published data and theories allow for replication and criticism by other scientists.
• Theories are tested by systematic observation bound by the logic of true experiments.
• Correlational studies, useful when experiments can not be carried out, only help rule out hypotheses.
• Researchers use many different methods to reach conclusions. Most often, they draw conclusions only after a slow accumulation of data from many studies.
adult Literacy Instruction: A Review of the Research
Adult Literacy Instruction: A Review of the Research is a follow-up to the original review of Adult Education (AE) reading instruction research published in 2002. This new report presents findings from an analysis of the AE reading instruction research base and is designed as a resource for practitioners and reading researchers.
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Learning to Achieve: A Professional’s Guide to Educating Adults with Learning Disabilities
This companion guide to the training is also a stand-alone resource for professionals who haven't taken the Learning to Achieve training. It covers relevant characteristics of adults with learning disabilities matched with descriptions and examples of practical intervention strategies.
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National Career Awareness Project
Teams from eight states were selected to participate in the first round of National Career Awareness Project, January–June, 2011. The National Career Awareness Project will increase and improve adult learners' career awareness and planning by helping adult education program staff incorporate career awareness and planning into their instruction and counseling activities.
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What is Literacy? How well adults can use printed and written information to function in society, to achieve their goals, and to develop their knowledge and potential is the definition of literacy crafted by a panel of experts for the National Adult Literacy Survey and adopted for use by ETS in state, national and international surveys.
As society becomes more technologically advanced, the quantity and types of written materials are growing. Adults are expected to use information from these materials in new and more complex ways and to maintain and enhance their literacy skills through lifelong learning activities.
Literacy skills are critical not only for the personal achievement of individuals, but also for the social and economic development of each nation. These skills are no longer linked to a single threshold that separates the literate from the nonliterate.
Types of Literacy Based on numerous research studies, ETS has developed principled frameworks that emphasize literacy as a set of practical tools to facilitate work on the job, at home, and around the community and that use real-world literacy tasks. The frameworks provide for the measurement of literacy along these proficiency scales, or types of literacy.
Prose Prose literacy measures how well you understand and use information found in newspapers, magazines, novels, brochures, manuals or flyers. Most adults use prose literacy to answer questions, to learn how to do something or for entertainment. For example, you are using prose literacy skills when you:
· learn about quitting smoking from a brochure at your health clinic
· read a story or poem with your child
· join in the readings at a wedding or other ceremonies or events
· give your child medication as directed on the package
· read a newspaper or magazine to keep up on local and national events
Document Document literacy measures how well you find and use information in forms, schedules, charts, graphs and other tables of information. Most adults use document literacy to find information they need or want or to give information to someone else. For example, you are using document literacy skills when you:
· fill out a job application form or complete a credit card application
· use a bus or train schedule to retrieve specific information
· find out today's weather using a weather map
· use the TV guide to find the time that your favorite TV show starts
· sign a form giving permission for your child to go on a school field trip
· compare items in the warehouse to those listed on the inventory sheet
· retrieve information from a graph or chart
Quantitative Quantitative literacy measures how well you can use numbers found in ads, forms, flyers, articles or other printed materials. Quantitative literacy is a little different from prose and document literacy because in addition to using a text to identify needed information, you also have to add, subtract, multiply, divide or do other math to get the information you need.
For example, you are using quantitative literacy skills when you:
· figure out how much commission you earned last month in your sales job
· add up how much you save when you use coupons to buy two items at a store
· calculate a 15% tip at a restaurant
· figure out the monthly cost of the milk program at your child's school
· keep score for your bowling team
· follow the instructions on a can of paint to calculate how many cans you need to paint a room
Health Skills Health literacy measures how well you can understand and use health-related information. Materials included in this measure are judged to be related to one of five activities associated with where and why people take health-related actions. These include actions that involve health promotion; health protection; disease prevention; health care and maintenance; and accessing needed services or navigating the health-care system.
For example, you are using health literacy skills when you:
· follow instructions on how to take a medication
· read a brochure to determine your medical benefits
· use information on food or product labels to calculate nutritional content
· see a notice and determine whether or not you should have a screening or inoculation
· fill out a benefit application or patient history form
· read an article about diet or nutrition
· read a letter summarizing medical test results
Across all disciplines, teachers have identified a need to strengthen students' ability to read for information...to develop strategic readers.
What are the guiding principles of strategic reading?
- The meaning of a text is not contained in the words on a page. It is constructed by the reader.
- The single most important variable in learning with texts is a reader's prior knowledge.
- How well a reader comprehends a text also depends on metacognition, one's ability to think about and control his thinking process before, during, and after reading.
- Reading and writing are integrally related.
WebEx: Bringing Literacy Strategies into Content Instruction Sponsored by Center on Instruction
Published: 7/23/2010 2:23 PM
The Center on Instruction provided an interactive webinar on July 22, 2010, to introduce the newly released Bringing Literacy Strategies into Content Instruction. Dr. Debby Houston Miller, Deputy Director of COI-Reading and one of the authors, presented information from the document, and co-authors Dr. Marcia Kosanovich and Dr. Deborah Reed participated in the Q&A session. The archived WebEx file can be accessed here, and the PowerPoint presentation and the document itself is available for download below.
Multimedia OverviewPreschool Language and Literacy
Watch this short overview to learn about the importance of preschool education to a child's long-term success. The overview explains how to use two research-based practices to improve instruction in foundational pre-reading skills and suggests how the website can be used to support and train teachers in learning these practices to improve the quality of preschool instruction. (4:10 min)
Explore these recommended practices:
· Teach Phonological Awareness
Develop phonological awareness skills as a foundation for learning sound-symbol relationships.
· Use Interactive and Dialogic Reading
Engage preschool children in interactive reading and dialogic reading to improve language and literacy skills.
· Overview Media & Materials
· State and District Tools
· Related Links
Visual DiagramPreschool Language and Literacy
This visual diagram illustrates the "big picture" of the practices and can be used to engage preschool teachers in discussion about their instruction. Use the left side to discuss the continuum of phonological awareness skills, and the right side to explore ways to implement interactive and dialogic questioning techniques. The diagram can help elicit teachers' ideas about